When barium oxide is added to the basic glass mixture, the result is a product of superior clarity, strength and resiliency. Barium glass is primarily used in the production of those stemware lines which have a long, slender stem, or relatively thin-wall bowls.

Glass forced into shape by air-pressure, either by hand blowing or machine blowing. This can be done with or without the use of a mold.

As previously mentioned, colour is introduced into glass by the addition of various oxides to the basic batch mixture. Gold oxide (as well as chrome oxide) is used to produce the ruby colour -this is the reason why ruby glass is generally more expensive. Iron oxide produces a green colour, cobalt oxide produces blue glass and the addition of uranium oxide will produce an amber or yellow colour. It should be noted that generally, colour is found in non-lead crystal products, but may be used in glass which covers full lead crystal (i.e. Cased Crystal) -two layers blown on top of each other, i.e. top layer - non-lead crystal; underneath layer -clear, over 2470 lead crystal -item is then cut through bottom layers as a means of decoration.

A much abused term which in the trade, simply refers to a clear colourless glass. The general materials used to produce crystal are fine silica sand, potash, and cullet (broken pieces of glass which are essential for the batch mixture). Other materials can be added to the basic batch mixture, such as oxides, i.e. lead oxide, gold oxide, etc.

Cutting and engraving on glass or crystal are two completely separate techniques of decorating glassware. The easiest way to distinguish between the two techniques is that cutting is a "wet process", while engraving is a relatively "dry process". A continuous stream of water flows over the diamond corborundum wheel which generally produces a deep cut. By using different diameters and thicknesses of wheels, the master cutter can achieve various degrees of cuts on an item. The water is used to wash away the tiny particles of glass being removed during the cutting process. Engraving is done generally with the use of a small copper wheel which produces a "shallow cutting" into the surface of the product. A small amount of abrasive fluid (not water) is used in order for the wheel to move more smoothly over the surface and scratch the design into the piece.

This is an identical procedure to panto, but there is only one needle used producing simple geometric patterns which are continuous.

When lead oxide is added to the basic glass mixture, "lead crystal" is produced. The amount of lead oxide added, determines the classification of the crystal, as well as the strength of the crystal. Semi-lead crystal (crystalline) contains approximately 8-10% lead oxide, while the term "full lead crystal' is generally conceded to contain a minimum of 24% lead oxide. Lead oxide was initially introduced into crystal by the English approximately 250 years ago, due to the fact that it has a low melting temperature (1000-1200 degrees Celsius). Lead oxide also adds a brilliance to the product when cut. It should also be noted that the most important reason for using lead oxide, is to soften the glass and, therefore, facilitate cutting and engraving on the item as a means of decoration. There are obviously disadvantages of having a softer glass product, i.e. more unstable during temperature changes; if softer, then tends to chip or scratch much easier.

Both wooden and cast iron molds are used in the production of crystal. Although, the wooden molds are produced of hardwoods (Cherry and Beechwood), they must be replaced more often as they burn-out after a time despite being immersed in water.

By taking a basic clear glass and dipping it into a mixture of paraffin and bee's wax, the glass becomes covered in wax. Then the glass is placed on a machine which has four needles surrounding the glass. An operator traces a stencil which is hooked to the machine and wherever the operator traces, so too, do the four needles and thus they remove the wax leaving a design. The glass is then taken and placed in an acid solution for anywhere from 7 to 40 minutes -depending on the size of the piece and acid concentration. In this process only the areas uncovered by wax are eaten away (the design area) and the wax is removed later by hot water, to be reused.

This refers to an item, generally produced in lead crystal, that has had its blank and possibly some of the major cuts pressed. The piece, however, must be finished with fine hand-cutting by a master cutter in the same manner as a completely hand-blown item.